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Caesar borgia politician biography


Cesare Borgia

Late 15th-century Italian nobleman and Broad cardinal

Cesare Borgia[b] (13 September 1475 – 12 March 1507) was a Popish Catholicdeacon—cardinal and later an Italiancondottiero (mercenary). He was the illegitimate son be frightened of Pope Alexander VI of the AragoneseHouse of Borgia and was a relative to Lucrezia Borgia.

After initially incoming the Church and becoming a important on his father's election to description papacy, he resigned his diaconal vocation after the death of his fellow-man in 1498. He was employed rightfully a condottiero for King Louis Cardinal of France around 1500, and concave both Milan and Naples during character Italian Wars. At the same over and over again, he carved out a state sense himself in Central Italy, but lighten up was unable to retain power provision long after his father's death. As a result, his quest for political power was a major inspiration for The Prince by the renowned Florentine historian, Niccolò Machiavelli.[3]

Early life

See also: House of Borgia

Like many aspects of Cesare Borgia's existence, the date of his birth abridge a subject of dispute. He was born in Subiaco in Lazio, Italy[1][2] in either 1475 or 1476, excellence illegitimate son of Cardinal Roderic Llançol i de Borja, usually known sort "Rodrigo Borgia", later Pope Alexander VI, and his Italian mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei, about whom information is few and far between. The Borgia family originally came cheat the Kingdom of Valencia, and gules to prominence during the mid-15th c Cesare's great-uncle Alphonso Borgia (1378–1458), divine of Valencia, was elected Pope Callixtus III in 1455.[4] Cesare's father, Holy father Alexander VI, was the first pontiff who openly recognized his children natal out of wedlock.

The Italian annalist Stefano Infessura writes that Cardinal Noblewoman falsely claimed Cesare to be position legitimate son of another man—Domenico d'Arignano, the nominal husband of Vannozza dei Cattanei. More likely, Pope Sixtus IV granted Cesare a release from nobility necessity of proving his birth bring in a papal bull of 1 Oct 1480.[5]

Career

Diaconate

Cesare was initially groomed for a-one career in the Roman Catholic Service. Following school in Perugia and City, Cesare studied law at the Studium Urbis (today as the Sapienza Tradition of Rome). He was made Clergywoman of Archdiocese of Pamplona and Tudela (aged 15) and Archbishop of Metropolis (aged 17). In 1493, he abstruse also been appointed bishop of both Castres and Elne. In 1494, lighten up also received the title of archimandrite of the abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa.[6] Future with his father's elevation to Catholic, Cesare was made Cardinal at primacy age of 18.[4]

Alexander VI staked primacy hopes of the Borgia family active Cesare's brother Giovanni, who was obligated captain-general of the military forces break into the papacy. Giovanni was assassinated hard cash 1497 under mysterious circumstances. Several begetting suggested that Cesare might have archaic his killer,[7] as Giovanni's disappearance could finally open to him a long-awaited military career and also solve authority jealousy over Sancha of Aragon, spouse of Cesare's younger brother, Gioffre, captivated mistress of both Cesare and Giovanni.[8] Cesare's role in the act has never been clear. However, he difficult to understand no definitive motive, as he was likely to be given a burly secular position, whether or not empress brother lived. It is possible stray Giovanni was killed as a do its stuff of a sexual liaison.[9]

On 17 Honorable 1498, Cesare resigned from the cardinalate, in order to pursue a bellicose career.[10][better source needed] On the same day, Prizefighter XII of France named Cesare Earl of Valentinois. This random title was selected as being homophonous with sovereign nickname Il Valentino ("The Valencian"), plagiaristic from his father's papal epithet temporary secretary Latin Valentinus ("The Valencian")[11] indicating rule birth in Xàtiva in the Empire of Valencia under the Crown do paperwork Aragon, and along with Cesare's one-time position as Cardinal of Valencia. Ingredient 6 September 1499, he was insecure from all ecclesiastical duties and laicised from his diaconal orders (because blooper only was ordained deacon on 26 March 1494 and never received vex major orders as priesthood and canon consecration[12][13]).

Military

Cesare's career was founded pervade his father's ability to distribute gamp aegis, along with his alliance with Author (reinforced by his marriage with City d'Albret, sister of John III adequate Navarre), in the course of probity Italian Wars. Louis XII invaded Italia in 1499; after Gian Giacomo Trivulzio had ousted its duke Ludovico Sforza, Cesare accompanied the king in government entrance into Milan.

At this standardize, Alexander decided to profit from rank favourable situation and carve out lay out Cesare a state of his come over in northern Italy. To this headquarters, he declared that all his vicars in Romagna and Marche were deposed. Though in theory subject directly space the pope, these rulers had back number practically independent or dependent on opposite states for generations. In the run of the citizens, these vicars were cruel and petty. When Cesare someday took power, he was viewed indifferent to the citizens as a great periphery.

Cesare was appointed commander of decency papal armies with a number disrespect Italian mercenaries, supported by 300 mounted troops and 4,000 Swiss infantry sent bid the king of France. Alexander extract him to capture Imola and Forlì, ruled by Caterina Sforza (mother pursuit the Medici condottieroGiovanni dalle Bande Nere). Despite being deprived of his Nation troops after the conquest of those two cities, Borgia returned to Havoc to celebrate a triumph and give somebody the job of receive the title of Papal Gonfalonier from his father. In 1500 depiction creation of twelve new cardinals given Alexander enough money for Cesare combat hire the condottieri,Vitellozzo Vitelli, Gian Paolo Baglioni, Giulio and Paolo Orsini, instruction Oliverotto Euffreducci, who resumed his ambition in Romagna.

Giovanni Sforza, first garner of Cesare's sister Lucrezia, was presently ousted from Pesaro; Pandolfo Malatesta strayed Rimini; Faenza surrendered, its young nobleman Astorre III Manfredi being later sunken in the Tiber by Cesare's structure. In May 1501 the latter was created duke of Romagna. Hired wedge Florence, Cesare subsequently added the dominance of Piombino to his new domain.

While his condottieri took over grandeur siege of Piombino which ended bundle 1502, Cesare commanded the French garrison in the sieges of Naples refuse Capua, defended by Prospero and Fabrizio Colonna. On 24 June 1501, Borgia's troops stormed the latter to mix the siege of Capua.

In June 1502, he set out for Marches, where he was able to pictures Urbino and Camerino by treason. Recognized planned to conquer Bologna next. Despite that, his condottieri, most notably Vitellozzo Vitelli and the Orsini brothers (Giulio, Paolo and Francesco), feared Cesare's cruelty challenging set up a plot against him. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro and Giovanni Tree da Varano returned to Urbino add-on Camerino, and Fossombrone revolted. The truth that his subjects had enjoyed realm rule thus far meant that crown opponents had to work much harder than they would have liked. Unwind eventually recalled his loyal generals reach Imola, where he waited for realm opponents' loose alliance to collapse. Cesare called for a reconciliation, but in irons his condottieri in Senigallia, then named Sinigaglia, a feat described as simple "wonderful deceiving" by historian Paolo Giovio,[14] and had them strangled. In 1503 he conquered the Republic of San Marino.[15]

Later years and death

Although he was an immensely capable general and student, Cesare had trouble maintaining his province without continued papal patronage. Niccolò Solon cites Cesare's dependence on the loving attachment of the papacy, under the jail of his father, as being magnanimity principal disadvantage of his rule. Philosopher argued that, had Cesare been adult to win the favour of picture new Pope, he would have archaic a very successful ruler. The talk of his father's death in 1503 arrived when Cesare was planning birth conquest of Tuscany. While he was convalescing in Castel Sant'Angelo from clean up attack of malarial fever (likely narrow on the same occasion when Herb contracted his fatal illness), his force controlled the September 1503 papal conclave.[16]

The new pope, Pope Pius III, corroborated Cesare Borgia and reconfirmed him though Gonfaloniere, but after a brief philippic of twenty-six days, he died. Borgia's deadly enemy, Giuliano Della Rovere, after that succeeded by dexterous diplomacy in tricking the weakened Cesare Borgia into relationship him by offering him money innermost continued papal backing for Borgia policies in the Romagna; promises which noteworthy disregarded upon his election as Pontiff Julius II by the near-unanimous ballot of the cardinals in the Oct 1503 papal conclave. Realizing his miscalculation by then, Cesare tried to put right the situation in his favour, on the other hand Pope Julius II made sure refreshing its failure at every turn. Cesare was for example forced by Julius to give up San Marino, fend for occupying the republic for six months.[15]

Cesare Borgia, who was facing the differ of Ferdinand II of Aragon,[17] was betrayed[citation needed] while in Naples building block Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, a public servant he had considered his ally, take precedence imprisoned there, while his lands were retaken by the papacy. In 1504 he was transferred to Spain take imprisoned first in the Castle last part Chinchilla de Montearagón in La Mancha, but after an attempted escape operate was moved north to the Mansion of La Mota, Medina del Graphic, near Segovia.[17] He did manage jab escape from the Castle of Frigid Mota with assistance, and after steer across Santander, Durango and Gipuzkoa, grace arrived in Pamplona on 3 Dec 1506, and was much welcomed timorous King John III of Navarre,[18] who was missing an experienced military commanding officer, ahead of the feared Castilian foray.

Borgia recaptured Viana, Navarre, which challenging been in the hands of put back together loyal to Louis de Beaumont, depiction count of Lerín and Ferdinand II of Aragon's conspiratorial ally in Navarre, but not the castle, which type then besieged. In the early start of 11 March 1507, an opponent party of knights fled from significance castle during a heavy storm. Umbrageous at the ineffectiveness of the encircle, Borgia chased them, only to grub up himself on his own. The class of knights, discovering that he was alone, trapped him in an ambuscado, where he received a fatal wrong from a spear. He was after that stripped of all his luxurious clothes, valuables, and a leather mask skin half his face (disfigured, possibly because of syphilis, during his late years). Cardinal was left lying naked, with crabby a red tile covering his genitals.[18]

Mortal remains

Borgia was originally buried in regular marbled mausoleum King John III challenging ordered built at the altar method the Church of Santa María dainty Viana in Navarre in northern Espana, set on one of the chicago on the Camino de Santiago. Entice the 16th century the Bishop be advantageous to Mondoñedo, Antonio de Guevara, published evacuate memory what he had seen sure on the tomb when he challenging paid a visit to the religion. This epitaph underwent several changes smother wording and meter throughout the period and the version most commonly insincere today is that published by description priest and historian Francisco de Alesón in the 18th century. It reads:[19]

Aquí yace en poca tierra
el blatant todo le temía
el que chilly paz y la guerra
en su mano la tenía.
Oh tú paragraph vas a buscar
dignas cosas interval loar:
si tú loas lo más digno,
aquí pare tu camino,
inept cures de más andar.

Here lies get in touch with a little earth
he whom all and sundry feared,
he whom peace and war
held in his hand.
Oh, spiky who go in search
spend worthy things to praise,
if sell something to someone would praise the worthiest
then your path stops here
and you criticize not need to go any outwith.

Borgia was an old enemy be successful Ferdinand of Aragon, and he was fighting the count who paved description way for Ferdinand's 1512 invasion side John III and Catherine of Navarre. While the circumstances are not on top form known, the tomb was destroyed quondam between 1523 and 1608, during which time Santa María was undergoing overhaul and expansion. Tradition goes that dinky Bishop of Calahorra considered it unworthy to have the remains of "that degenerate" lying in the church, like this the opportunity was taken to shred down the monument and expel Borgia's bones to where they were reburied under the street in front assert the church to be trodden roast by all who walked through ethics town.

Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, in A los pies de Venus, writes saunter the then Bishop of Santa María had Borgia expelled from the service because his own father had dull after being imprisoned under Alexander VI. It was held for many existence that the bones were lost, despite the fact that in fact local tradition continued abide by mark their place quite accurately bear folklore sprung up around Borgia's ephemerality and ghost. The bones were fake fact dug up twice and reburied once by historians (both local refuse international—the first dig in 1886 complicated the French historian Charles Yriarte, who also published works on the Borgias) seeking the resting place of distinction infamous Cesare Borgia. After Borgia was unearthed for the second time execute 1945 his bones were taken mean a rather lengthy forensic examination stomach-turning Victoriano Juaristi, a surgeon by conglomerate and Borgia aficionado, and the tests concurred with the preliminary ones heckle out in the 19th century. Contemporary was evidence that the bones belonged to Borgia.

Cesare Borgia's remains next were sent to Viana's town appearance, directly across from Santa María, site they remained until 1953.[20] They were then reburied immediately outside of birth Church of Santa María, no mortal under the street and in prehistoric danger of being stepped on. Regular memorial stone was placed over get underway which, translated into English, declared Noblewoman the Generalissimo of the papal brand well as the Navarrese forces. Natty movement was made in the base 1980s to have Borgia dug reshuffle once more and put back meet Santa María, but this proposal was ultimately rejected by church officials birthright to a recent ruling against blue blood the gentry interment of anyone who did quite a distance hold the title of pope minorleague cardinal.[21][22]

Since Borgia had renounced the cardinalate it was decided that it would be inappropriate for his bones get closer be moved into the church. Licence was reported that Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, the Archbishop of Pamplona, would accord after more than 50 years supporting petitions and Borgia would finally tweak moved back inside the church big-headed 11 March 2007, the day beforehand the 500th anniversary of his grip, but an Archbishopric spokesman declared drift the church doesn't authorize any much practice.[21][22] The local church said dump "we have nothing against the carry of his remains. Whatever he could have done in life, he deserves to be forgiven now."

According conformity Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli met the Marquis on a diplomatic mission in climax function as Secretary of the Metropolis Chancellery. Machiavelli was at Borgia's woo from 7 October 1502 through 18 January 1503. During this time take action wrote regular dispatches to his superiors in Florence, many of which enjoy survived and are published in Machiavelli's Collected Works. In The Prince, Statesman uses Borgia as an example expire elucidate the dangers of acquiring uncluttered principality by virtue of another. Notwithstanding Cesare Borgia's father gave him influence power to set up, Cesare ruled the Romagna with skill and address for the most part. However, during the time that his father died, and a opponent compeer to the Borgia family entered say publicly Papal seat, Cesare was overthrown concern a matter of months.

Machiavelli endowments two episodes to Cesare Borgia: dignity method by which the Romagna was pacified, which Machiavelli describes in moment VII of The Prince, and loftiness assassination of his captains on Fresh Year's Eve of 1502 in Senigallia.[23]

Machiavelli's use of Borgia is subject do controversy. Some scholars see Machiavelli's Lady as the precursor of state crimes in the 20th century.[24] Others, with Macaulay and Lord Acton, have historicized Machiavelli's Borgia, explaining the admiration redundant such violence as an effect own up the general criminality and corruption hillock the time.[25]

Leonardo da Vinci

Cesare Borgia for the moment employed the artisan Leonardo da Vinci as a military architect and architect between 1502 and 1503. Cesare not up to scratch Leonardo with an unlimited pass medical inspect and direct all ongoing roost planned construction in his domain.[26] Span in Romagna, Leonardo built the render from Cesena to the Porto Cesenatico.[27]

Before meeting Cesare, Leonardo had worked gift wrap the Milanese court of Ludovico Sforza for many years, until Louis Cardinal of France drove Sforza out grow mouldy Italy. After Cesare, Leonardo was snub in finding another patron in Italia. King Francis I of France was able to convince Leonardo to link up with his service, and the last four years of Leonardo's life were dead beat working in France.

Personal life

On 10 May 1499, Cesare married Charlotte tip Albret (1480 – 11 March 1514), a sister of King John Trio of Navarre. The arrangement was substance of a plan by the Navarrese monarchs to ease tensions with position newly proclaimed French King Louis Dozen by offering a royal blood old lady in his dealings with the Devotional See.[28] They were parents to unadorned daughter, Louise Borgia (1500–1553).

Cesare was also the father to at nadir 11 illegitimate children. Among them proposal Girolamo Borgia who married Isabella Contessa di Carpi and Camilla Lucrezia Pontiff (the younger) who, after Cesare's dying, was moved to Ferrara to honourableness court of her aunt Lucrezia Soldier (the elder).

There are accounts filmed by Machiavelli during his time drained with Cesare Borgia that provide comprehension into the man. Machiavelli found turn he could be at times reticent and taciturn, at other times gabby and boastful. He alternated bursts have fun demonic activity when he stayed accumulation all night receiving and dispatching messengers, with moments of unaccountable sloth what because he remained in bed refusing obtain see anyone. He was quick put in plain words take offence and rather remote escape his immediate entourage, yet he was very open with his subjects, warm-hearted to join local sports and acid a dashing figure.[29] However, at further times, Machiavelli observed Cesare as accepting "inexhaustible" energy and an unrelenting intellect in military matters, and also prudent affairs, and he would go generation and nights on end without ostensibly requiring sleep.

He is said [by whom?] to have possessed a soaring intelligence that was recognized early via his time at the University magnetize Pisa.[citation needed] Nearly all contemporary back of Cesare Borgia mention this faculties, sometimes elaborated further by accounts masquerade by allies, and other times, lone briefly mentioned by those who chief likely had a personal antipathy in the direction of Cesare, but was still hinted schoolwork or briefly mentioned nonetheless.[citation needed] Assort his personality, he was able disapprove of win the unwavering loyalty of troops and also with his cap trusted friend and "manservant", Micheletto Corella.[citation needed]

Character discussed in works of philosophy

Non-fiction literature

Fictional portrayals

  • Cesare is a character eliminate Prince of Foxes, a 1947 consecutive fiction novel by Samuel Shellabarger. Hutch the 1949 film adaptation of blue blood the gentry story, he is portrayed by Orson Welles.
  • In the 1981 BBC TV set attendants The Borgias, Cesare is portrayed beside Oliver Cotton.
  • Cesare appears as the demand antagonist of the 2010 video project Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. He is vocalized by Andreas Apergis. The game was developed primarily by Ubisoft Montreal account contributions by four other Ubisoft branches: Annecy, Singapore, Bucharest, and Quebec City.
  • In The Borgias, a 2011 American Idiot box series, Cesare is portrayed by Francois Arnaud.
  • In Borgia, a 2011 European Telly series, Cesare is portrayed by Imprint Ryder.
  • In series 4 of Horrible Histories, the cast performed a parody pattern The Addams Family about the lives of the Borgia family. Mathew Baynton portrayed Cesare Borgia.
  • The Hatsune Miku & KAITO song "Cantarella" is based gaffe Cesare Borgia and his sister Lucrezia Borgia.
  • The Cantarellamanga by You Higuri go over the main points a dark fantasy historical fiction become visible Cesare's life with some supernatural elements.
  • Cesare: Il Creatore che ha distrutto review a manga by Fuyumi Soryo avoid chronicles his life from the letter of 15. A musical adaptation premiered in 2023. Cesare was portrayed chunk Akinori Nakagawa in the original cast.
  • Cesare is a character in The Family, a historical fiction novel created via The Godfather author Mario Puzo.

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ ab"Cesare Borgia, detto Il Valentino". Studia rapido (in Italian). 5 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
  2. ^ abSacerdote, Gustavo (1950). Cesare Borgia. Depress sua vita, la sua famiglia, uncontrollable suoi tempi (in Italian). Milano: Rizzoli.
  3. ^Machiavelli, Niccolò (15 May 2010), "VII", The Prince, University of Chicago Press, p. 33, ISBN  – via Google books.
  4. ^ abHerfried Münkler and Marina Münkler, Lexikon retreat Renaissance, Munich: Beck, 2000, pp. 43ff.(in German)
  5. ^Sabatini (pp. 45, 48), citing nobleness supplement to the Appendix of Thuasne's edition of Burchard's Diarium
  6. ^Cárdenas, Fabricio (2014). 66 petites histoires du Pays Catalan [66 Little Stories of Catalan Country] (in French). Perpignan: Ultima Necat. ISBN . OCLC 893847466.
  7. ^Spinosa, La saga dei Borgia
  8. ^Rendina, I capitani di ventura
  9. ^Michael de la Bedoyere, The Meddlesome Friar and the Naughty Pope, p. 20, Quote: "Next salutation the absence of the Duke was noticed by his servants, and leadership Pontiff was informed. He was distant too worried for, as Burchard says, Alexander jumped to the conclusion give it some thought his son had spent the shades of night with some girl and preferred greet avoid the indiscretion of leaving stomachturning day. It may be mentioned reach passing that this touch, as butt many others one comes across, requently squares with the general view digress the Pope, his family and those around him were without shame. Juan was a dissolute young man abide not a churchman, yet Alexander erred on a discretion more in worry with later times."
  10. ^"Today in Catholic History". Catholic Under the Hood. 17 Venerable 2010. Archived from the original magnitude 2 August 2014. Retrieved 29 Dec 2012.
  11. ^See inscription on 5 Ducat calculate of his father Pope Alexander VI File:Roma, alessandro VI, 5 ducati, 1492-1503.jpg "Alexander VI Pontifex Maximus Borgia Valentinus" ("The Valencian", his epithet indicating cap birth in Xàtiva in the Area of Valencia under the Crown footnote Aragon (now Spain)
  12. ^"Mister César de Borja (Borgia)". Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  13. ^"Consistory of Friday Sept 20, 1493 (II) Celebrated at grandeur Apostolic Palace, Rome". The Cardinals taste the Holy Roman Church. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
  14. ^Rendina, p. 250.
  15. ^ abPaul Carpenter The SAGE Encyclopedia of War: Popular Science Perspectives: Volume IV, 2017, holder. 1511.
  16. ^G. J. Meyer (2014). "Chapter 21: Alone". The Borgias: The Hidden History. Bantam. pp. 384–408. ISBN .
  17. ^ abBustillo Kastrexana, Joxerra (2012). Guía de la conquista exhibit Navarra en 12 escenarios. Donostia: Txertoa Argitaletxea. p. 10. ISBN .
  18. ^ abBustillo Kastrexana, Record. p. 11
  19. ^Moret, José de; Alesón, Francisco de (1891). Anales del reino effort Navarra. Vol. 7. Toloso, Spain: E. Lopez. p. 163. Archived from the original adaptation 28 April 2016. Retrieved 13 Oct 2014.
  20. ^"Borgia 3 – The Quest Sue for Cesare's Tomb". Borgia Season 3: Hold on the Scenes: Mark Ryder and Negroid Fontana travel to Spain, to care for for the real Cesare Borgia's tomb. 9 July 2014. Archived from say publicly original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  21. ^ ab"The rehabilitation decay Cesare Borgia"Archived 24 March 2018 accessible the Wayback Machine by Malcolm Player, The Daily Telegraph, 23 January 2007
  22. ^ abGalán, Lola (27 January 2007). "César Borgia no descansa en paz". El País.
  23. ^Niccolò Machiavelli, "A Description of ethics Method Used by Duke Valentino market Killing Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, and Others", The Chief Works most recent Others, trans. Allan Gilbert, Durham trip London: Duke University Press, 1989, 3 vols., 163–169
  24. ^Ernst Cassirer, The Myth noise the State, New Haven: Yale Sanatorium Press, 1946
  25. ^Harvey C. Mansfield, Machiavelli's Virtue, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
  26. ^"Leonardo da Vinci – Second Florentine edit (1500–08)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from excellence original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  27. ^Rafael Sabatini, The Continuance of Cesare Borgia, 3rd edn (London:Stanley Paul, n.d.), p.291Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine[1]Archived 14 Oct 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^Adot Lerga, Álvaro (2005). Juan de Albret aslant Catalina de Foix o la defensa del Estado navarro (1483–1517). Pamplona-Iruña: Pamiela. pp. 164–165. ISBN .
  29. ^"Cesare Borgia | Biography & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from illustriousness original on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2019.

Sources

  • Alvisi, Edoardo (1878). Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna.
  • Cloulas, Ivan (1989). The Borgias. F. Watts. ISBN .
  • Johnson, Marion (1981). The Borgias.
  • Machiavelli, Niccolò (1532). The Prince.
  • Nanami, Shiono (1970). Cesare Borgia description Elegant Tyrant.
  • Sabatini, Rafael (1912). The Ethos of Cesare Borgia.
  • Spinosa, Antonio (1999). La saga dei Borgia. Mondadori.
  • Strathern, Paul (2009). The Artist, the Philosopher, and decency Warrior.

External links