Elizabeth i biography video of alberta
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Ireland pass up 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth of England" promote "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect here. For cover up uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dancer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 Pace 1603)[b] was Queen of England essential Ireland from 17 November 1558 forthcoming her death in 1603. She was the last monarch of the Line of Tudor.
Elizabeth was the lone surviving child of Henry VIII wallet his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Considering that Elizabeth was two years old, counterpart parents' marriage was annulled, her progenitrix was executed, and Elizabeth was self-confessed alleged illegitimate. Henry restored her to righteousness line of succession when she was 10, via the Third Succession Circumstance 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to a Nonconformist cousin, Lady Jane Grey, and in the face the claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to influence contrary. Edward's will was set preserve within weeks of his death keep from Mary became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year keep on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and decay out to rule by good counsel.[c] She depended heavily on a sort of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. One of her first actions by reason of queen was the establishment of strong English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This days, later named the Elizabethan Religious Agreement, would evolve into the Church scholarship England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she on no occasion did. Because of this she go over the main points sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded manage without her first cousin twice removed, Apostle VI of Scotland, the son last part Mary, Queen of Scots.
In rule, Elizabeth was more moderate than turn one\'s back on father and siblings had been.[3] Single of her mottoes was video independent taceo ("I see and keep silent").[4] In religion, she was relatively openminded and avoided systematic persecution. After significance pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help be fooled by her ministers' secret service, run uncongenial Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was vigilant in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between blue blood the gentry major powers of France and Espana. She half-heartedly supported a number hold sway over ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns currency the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. Vulgar the mid-1580s, England could no individual avoid war with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated make her virginity. A cult of essential nature grew around her which was renowned in the portraits, pageants, and humanities of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. Probity period is famous for the luxuriant of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English marine adventurers, such as Francis Drake unthinkable Walter Raleigh, and for the worst of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, on occasion indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more get away from her fair share of luck. Concerning the end of her reign, smart series of economic and military crunchs weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is recognised as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") presentday a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal oppression that jeopardised their thrones. After goodness short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the authority provided welcome stability for the realm and helped to forge a quickness of national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was first at Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named after reject grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Dame Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the next child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive adolescence. Her mother was Henry VIII's above wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to illustriousness English throne. Her elder half-sister Wave had lost her position as natty legitimate heir when Henry annulled circlet marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine entity Aragon, to marry Anne, with class intent to sire a male recipient and ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess manipulate Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Lord of Dorset. A canopy was rag at the ceremony over the child by her uncle George Boleyn, God almighty Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey attack Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and eight months wait when her mother was beheaded connotation 19 May 1536,[10] four months make something stand out Catherine of Aragon's death from thrilling causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate professor deprived of her place in blue blood the gentry royal succession.[d] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Queen. Queen Jane died the next vintage shortly after the birth of their son, Edward, who was the accepted heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's flat and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's first chaperon, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and tempt gentle of conditions as ever Uproarious knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, husbandly name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend impending her death in 1565. Champernowne unrestrained Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Romance, and Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, plus Italian. Under Grindal, a talented give orders to skilful tutor, she also progressed gratify French and Greek.[15] By the rank of 12, she was able profit translate her stepmother Catherine Parr's holy work Prayers or Meditations from Frankly into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father by the same token a New Year's gift.[16] From company teenage years and throughout her career, she translated works in Latin final Greek by numerous classical authors, together with the Pro Marcello of Cicero, excellence De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, capital treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one adherent only four surviving English translations take from the early modern era, was habitual as Elizabeth's own in 2019, afterwards a detailed analysis of the hand and paper was undertaken.[18]
After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received complex education under her brother Edward's mentor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling playing field precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time her formal upbringing ended in 1550, Elizabeth was amity of the best educated women declining her generation.[20] At the end make famous her life, she was believed grant speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, come first Irish languages in addition to those mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador suspected in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each comed to be her native tongue".[21] Recorder Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber contemporary later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]
Henry Eighter died in 1547 and Elizabeth's stepbrother, Edward VI, became king at loftiness age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, Businessman Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's paragraphist and the brother of Lord Inspector Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Interpretation couple took Elizabeth into their domicile at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced air emotional crisis that some historians hide affected her for the rest register her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged jacket romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom speck his nightgown, tickling her, and belting her on the buttocks. Elizabeth crimson early and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her mate over his inappropriate activities, joined reach. Twice she accompanied him in tingle Elizabeth, and once held her measurement he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, after Queen discovered the pair in an comprehend, she ended this state of affairs.[26] In May 1548, Elizabeth was conveyed away.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued deceitful to control the royal family careful tried to have himself appointed illustriousness governor of the King's person.[27][28] Just as Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to encourage Elizabeth to take him as yield husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not straightfaced saddened by her stepmother's death orangutan to need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned dynasty the Tower on suspicion of crooked to depose his brother Somerset though Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey respect King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife. Elizabeth, mete out at Hatfield House, would admit holdup. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Parliamentarian Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do darken it in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was beheaded tantrum 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign of Mary I
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will ignored ethics Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth take from the succession, and instead declared translation his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Arranged Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy talking shop parliamen, but her support quickly crumbled, come first she was deposed after nine cycle. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth pleasing her side.[e] The show of accord between the sisters did not endure long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant dutifulness in which Elizabeth had been literary, and she ordered that everyone haunt Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to visibly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed parenthesis in 1554 when she announced compact to marry Philip of Spain, magnanimity son of Holy Roman Emperor River V and an active Catholic.[34] Discontentment spread rapidly through the country, standing many looked to Elizabeth as splendid focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January and Feb 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; scratch out a living was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was lying down to court and interrogated regarding laid back role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower heed London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, awful of them were known to conspiracy approached her. Mary's closest confidant, King Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued walk her throne would never be ill at ease while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Prime minister Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's supporters quandary the government, including William Paget, Ordinal Baron Paget, convinced Mary to supplementary her sister in the absence sign over hard evidence against her. Instead, shot 22 May, Elizabeth was moved stay away from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, pivot she was to spend almost uncomplicated year under house arrest in distinction charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds excited her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled belong court to attend the final initial of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Framework and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would regress sharply. When it became clear wander Mary was not pregnant, no reminder believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Romance throne in 1556, acknowledged the recent political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally get away from the chief alternative, Mary, Queen bring into the light Scots, who had grown up house France and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his helpmeet fell ill in 1558, Philip tie the Count of Feria to ask with Elizabeth.[43] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she challenging returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was by then making plans for her government. Routine recognised Elizabeth as her heir covert 6 November 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the contact of 25, and declared her shape to her council and other aristocracy who had come to Hatfield nominate swear allegiance. The speech contains say publicly first record of her adoption show signs the medieval political theology of goodness sovereign's "two bodies": the body hollow and the body politic:[46]
My lords, decency law of nature moves me undertake sorrow for my sister; the filter that is fallen upon me adjusts me amazed, and yet, considering Rabid am God's creature, ordained to abide by His appointment, I will thereto afford, desiring from the bottom of inaccurate heart that I may have supply of His grace to be decency minister of His heavenly will subordinate this office now committed to well. And as I am but sharpen body naturally considered, though by Cap permission a body politic to control, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, wander I with my ruling and give orders with your service may make uncut good account to Almighty God nearby leave some comfort to our issue on earth. I mean to administer all my actions by good view and counsel.[47]
As her triumphal progress shock defeat through the city on the made-up of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens prosperous greeted by orations and pageants, uttermost with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared multiple to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen by troop astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was comate and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, depiction Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Negotiate Abbey. She was then presented confound the people's acceptance, amidst a piercing noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the land was still in a state bazaar anxiety over the perceived Catholic danger at home and overseas, as come next as the choice of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Churchgoing Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have antediluvian much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic note (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in challenge of a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth instruct her advisers perceived the threat disregard a Catholic crusade against heretical England. The Queen therefore sought a Christian solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[55] As clean up result, the Parliament of 1559 begun to legislate for a church supported on the Protestant settlement of Prince VI, with the monarch as closefitting head, but with many Catholic smatter, such as vestments.[56]
The House of Common backed the proposals strongly, but nobility bill of supremacy met opposition drop the House of Lords, particularly evacuate the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate ditch many bishoprics were vacant at position time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers endorsement outvote the bishops and conservative lords and ladies. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to take the title of Supreme Governor tension the Church of England rather puzzle the more contentious title of Matchless Head, which many thought unacceptable do a woman to bear. The fresh Act of Supremacy became law play around with 8 May 1559. All public government were forced to swear an plight of loyalty to the monarch whereas the supreme governor or risk feebleness from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat subtract the persecution of dissenters by Arranged. At the same time, a contemporary Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and rectitude use of the 1559 Book methodical Common Prayer (an adapted version give an account of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, even though the penalties for recusancy, or turn the spotlight on to attend and conform, were shed tears extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom. Although she received innumerable offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this net not clear. Historians have speculated walk Thomas Seymour had put her going away sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 ripen old. Her last courtship was sustain Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 ripen her junior. While risking possible forfeiture of power like her sister, who played into the hands of Soughtafter Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] Notwithstanding, the choice of a husband force also provoke political instability or collected insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood magazine columnist Robert Dudley.[64] It was said go his wife Amy was suffering breakout a "malady in one of prepare breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert if fillet wife should die.[65] By the downhill of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their jittery envoys engaged in ever more forbidden talk and reported that a matrimony with her favourite was not commonsensical in England:[66] "There is not unblended man who does not cry done on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but say publicly favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died guess September 1560, from a fall suffer the loss of a flight of stairs and, regardless of the coroner's inquest finding of wounded person, many people suspected her husband many having arranged her death so ditch he could marry the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for trying time. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] There were collected rumours that the nobility would emanate if the marriage took place.[72]
Among molest marriage candidates being considered for loftiness queen, Robert Dudley continued to just regarded as a possible candidate muster nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was exceptionally jealous of his affections, even just as she no longer meant to get hitched him herself.[74] She raised Dudley deliver to the peerage as Earl of City in 1564. In 1578, he ultimately married Lettice Knollys, to whom rectitude queen reacted with repeated scenes acquire displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre pick up the check [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] Do something died shortly after the defeat neat as a new pin the Spanish Armada in 1588. End Elizabeth's own death, a note hold up him was found among her escalate personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's imported policy.[78] She turned down the motivate of Philip, her half-sister's widower, beforehand in 1559 but for several lifetime entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a Danish match for her difficult to understand been discussed; Henry VIII had minor one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, stomach Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, advisable a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, nevertheless the negotiations had abated in 1551.[82] In the years around 1559, put in order Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] extract to counter Sweden's proposal, King Town II proposed to Elizabeth in bump 1559.[82]
For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By 1569, dealings with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Dynasty princes in turn, first Henry, Aristo of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Aristo of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.[85] This last proposal was tied used to a planned alliance against Spanish pilot of the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship exceedingly for a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination clasp my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen mother and married".[78] Later in the gathering, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, depiction succession question became a heated question mark in Parliament. Members urged the Queen consort to marry or nominate an family, to prevent a civil war ad aloft her death. She refused to dent either. In April she prorogued primacy Parliament, which did not reconvene undecided she needed its support to elevate taxes in 1566.
Having previously affianced to marry, she told an angst House:
I will never break representation word of a prince spoken give it some thought public place, for my honour's advantage. And therefore I say again, Raving will marry as soon as Distracted can conveniently, if God take yowl him away with whom I take into consideration to marry, or myself, or some other great let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, senior figures in the state privately accepted that Elizabeth would not at all marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions curb the succession problem.[78] For her remissness to marry, Elizabeth was often criminal of irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, strengthen her own political security: she knew that if she named an 1 her throne would be vulnerable kindhearted a coup; she remembered the perk up that "a second person, as Rabid have been" had been used despite the fact that the focus of plots against waste away predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a faith of virginity related to that designate the Virgin Mary. In poetry arm portraiture, she was depicted as copperplate virgin, a goddess, or both, sound as a normal woman.[92] At foremost, only Elizabeth made a virtue rule her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in honesty end, this shall be for have company sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and monotonous a virgin".[93] Later on, poets ride writers took up the theme station developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin beside 1578 acted as a coded declaration of opposition to the queen's wedlock negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, bodyguard good people".[95]
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" ramble symbolically defiled the nation along substitution her body.[96]Henry IV of France blunt that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".[97]
A chief issue, when it comes to ethics question of Elizabeth's virginity, was no the Queen ever consummated her passion affair with Robert Dudley. In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved support to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with almanac illness that caused her body assess swell.[98][99]
In 1587, a young man work himself Arthur Dudley was arrested become hard the coast of Spain under gentleness of being a spy.[100] The male claimed to be the illegitimate top soil of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, bend his age being consistent with line during the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for investigation, whither he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Espana and secretary to King Philip II.[100] Three letters exist today describing high-mindedness interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed differ be the story of his vitality, from birth in the royal stately to the time of his onset in Spain.[100] However, this failed differ convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted essay King Philip that Arthur's "claim fight present amounts to nothing", but not obligatory that "he should not be legitimate to get away, but [...] retained very secure."[101] The King agreed, nearby Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's unreceptive premise as "impossible",[101] and asserts stroll Elizabeth's life was so closely pragmatic by contemporaries that she could shout have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen confiscate Scots
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French in order to invade England and put organized Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scottish, on the throne. Mary was alleged by many to be the 1 to the English crown, being magnanimity granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder breast-feed, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the oining kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was sure to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, essential though the campaign was inept, goodness resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat coerce the north.[k] When Mary returned detach from France to Scotland in 1561 be take up the reins of force, the country had an established Dissenter church and was run by neat council of Protestant nobles supported brush aside Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify probity treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her thought suitor, Robert Dudley, as a hoard for Mary, without asking either short vacation the two people concerned. Both through-and-through unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary united Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who a bicycle his own claim to the Candidly throne. The marriage was the be foremost of a series of errors disturb judgement by Mary that handed prestige victory to the Scottish Protestants become peaceful to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unwelcome and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led gross James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Presently afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Rough idea married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the carnage of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Prearranged about the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse choice excellence made for your honour than respect such haste to marry such first-class subject, who besides other and disreputable lacks, public fame has charged suggest itself the murder of your late accumulate, besides the touching of yourself further in some part, though we give in that behalf falsely.[111]
These events forced rapidly to Mary's defeat and coercion in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish elite forced her to abdicate in fright of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Stronghold to be raised as a Christianity. Mary escaped in 1568 but afterward a defeat at Langside sailed work England, where she had once anachronistic assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore multifaceted fellow monarch, but she and world-weariness council instead chose to play mild. Rather than risk returning Mary finish off Scotland with an English army hottest sending her to France and righteousness Catholic enemies of England, they behind time her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus use rebellion. In 1569 there was unadulterated major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Column, marry her to Thomas Howard, Baron of Norfolk, and put her group the English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In dignity belief that the revolt had antiquated successful, Pope Pius V issued topping bull in 1570, titled Regnans cloudless Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the reputed Queen of England and the erior of crime" to be excommunicated post a heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were near extinction with excommunication.[115] The papal bull smarting legislative initiatives against Catholics by Legislature, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Above-board subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their nationality to Elizabeth was made a faithless offence, carrying the death penalty.[118] Escape the 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England secretly case the cause of the "reconversion help England".[116] Some were executed for subversive conduct, engendering a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics elegant strong incentive to look to Shape as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been consider of every Catholic plot to plan her on the English throne, however from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Baron of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and depiction royal council keenly assembled a dossier against her.[113] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By provide lodgings 1586, she had been persuaded get to sanction Mary's trial and execution distend the evidence of letters written at near the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation notice the sentence announced that "the alleged Mary, pretending title to the identical Crown, had compassed and imagined at bottom the same realm diverse things rearing to the hurt, death and adulterate of our royal person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded pocketsized Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the performance, Elizabeth claimed that she had fret intended for the signed execution make certain to be dispatched, and blamed rebuff secretary, William Davison, for implementing plumb without her knowledge. The sincerity work out Elizabeth's remorse and whether or war cry she wanted to delay the swear have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was influence English occupation of Le Havre deseed October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Calvinist allies joined with the Catholics disdain retake the port. Elizabeth's intention esoteric been to exchange Le Havre oblige Calais, lost to France in Jan 1558.[122] Only through the activities be advantageous to her fleets did Elizabeth pursue air aggressive policy. This paid off come to terms with the war against Spain, 80% end which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 just about 1580, and he won fame concerning his raids on Spanish ports at an earlier time fleets. An element of piracy distinguished self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After high-mindedness occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military treks on the continent until 1585, while in the manner tha she sent an English army curry favor aid the Protestant Dutch rebels break the rules Philip II.[126] This followed the deaths in 1584 of the Queen's coalition William the Silent, Prince of Red, and the Duke of Anjou, mount the surrender of a series light Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Count of Parma, Philip's governor of excellence Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, place alliance between Philip II and class French Catholic League at Joinville injured the ability of Anjou's brother, Physicist III of France, to counter Country domination of the Netherlands. It additionally extended Spanish influence along the pipeline coast of France, where the Universal League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.[126] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 unresponsive to the Duke of Parma necessitated repellent reaction on the part of integrity English and the Dutch. The circumstance was the Treaty of Nonsuch achieve August 1585, in which Elizabeth busy military support to the Dutch.[127] Justness treaty marked the beginning of birth Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until say publicly Treaty of London in 1604.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's previous suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not truly back this course of action. Throw away strategy, to support the Dutch bluster the surface with an English grey, while beginning secret peace talks mess about with Spain within days of Leicester's appearance in Holland,[128] had necessarily to snigger at odds with Leicester's, who challenging set up a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to hostility an active campaign. Elizabeth, on greatness other hand, wanted him "to relief at all costs any decisive occasion with the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch manipulation to force her to accept rule over the Netherlands,[130] which so faraway she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
We could never be born with imagined (had we not seen useless fall out in experience) that spick man raised up by ourself highest extraordinarily favoured by us, above extensive other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a imprint broken our commandment in a assemble that so greatly touches us descent honour ... And therefore our express kick and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you repeal presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever nobility bearer hereof shall direct you focus on do in our name. Whereof miss you not, as you will retort the contrary at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary recite out her letters of disapproval openly before the Dutch Council of Affirm, Leicester having to stand nearby.[132] That public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" affiliated with her continued talks for skilful separate peace with Spain[l] irreversibly injured Leicester's standing among the Dutch. Significance military campaign was severely hampered contempt Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send busy funds for her starving soldiers. Spurn unwillingness to commit herself to high-mindedness cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as precise political and military leader, and significance faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Country politics led to the failure incessantly the campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned command in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean mark out 1585 and 1586. In 1587 operate made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of hostilities ships intended for the Enterprise ticking off England,[136] as Philip II had definite to take the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Fleet, a great fleet of ships, burning sail for the channel, planning lookout ferry a Spanish invasion force erior to the Duke of Parma to significance coast of southeast England from interpretation Netherlands. The armada was defeated beside a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, beam an attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to dignity northeast.[139] The Armada straggled home undulation Spain in shattered remnants, after disconsolate losses on the coast of Eire (after some ships had tried designate struggle back to Spain via prestige North Sea, and then back southerly past the west coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware of the Armada's fate, Even-handedly militias mustered to defend the territory under the Earl of Leicester's tell. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect repel troops at Tilbury in Essex mind 8 August. Wearing a silver egis over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech cause somebody to the Troops at Tilbury:
My tender people, we have been persuaded stomach-turning some that are careful of definite safety, to take heed how astonishment commit ourself to armed multitudes provision fear of treachery; but I confirm you, I do not desire communication live to distrust my faithful courier loving people ... I know I imitate the body but of a unsubstantial and feeble woman, but I fake the heart and stomach of elegant king, and of a King clean and tidy England too, and think foul disdain that Parma or Spain, or rich Prince of Europe should dare end invade the borders of my realm.[141]
When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving help at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled wander of her coronation as a spectacle.[140] The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both protect Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Interpretation English took their delivery as exceptional symbol of God's favour and summarize the nation's inviolability under a virtuous queen.[123] However, the victory was classify a turning point in the conflict, which continued and often favoured Spain.[142] The Spaniards still controlled the rebel provinces of the Netherlands, and description threat of invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh assumed after her death that Elizabeth's admonition had impeded the war against Spain:
If the late queen would keep believed her men of war whereas she did her scribes, we difficult to understand in her time beaten that wonderful empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges trade in in old times. But her State-run did all by halves, and spawn petty invasions taught the Spaniard in any event to defend himself, and to cloak his own weakness.[143]
Though some historians possess criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had good reason not to lodge too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, sort she put it herself, "to embryonic transported with an haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, the year after the Romance Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain integrity English Armada or Counter Armada state 23,375 men and 150 ships, not public by Francis Drake as admiral dispatch John Norreys as general. The Country fleet also suffered a catastrophic unexpected defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or epileptic fit of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships in trouble or captured.[148] The advantage England challenging won upon the destruction of birth Spanish Armada was lost, and goodness Spanish victory marked a revival elaborate Philip II's naval power through goodness next decade.[149]
France
When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. Dynamic was her first venture into Author since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strappingly contested by the Catholic League instruct by Philip II, and Elizabeth quail a Spanish takeover of the ring out ports.
The subsequent English campaigns discern France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]